Showing posts with label collaboration. Show all posts
Showing posts with label collaboration. Show all posts
Friday
Dissertation abstract
Now that the dissertation draft is complete, I feel it's time to put my abstract online for those people who want a bit more than my "elevator spiel" about what I actually wrote. Find it here thanks to Google Docs.
Saturday
New technologies at work
Christina Garsten and Helena Wulff (eds), New Technologies at Work: People, Screens and Social Virtuality, Berg Publishers, 2003
See the full review at the RCCS website.
Excerpts:
New Technologies at Work: People, Screens and Social Virtuality, edited by Christina Garsten and Helena Wulff, is a set of ethnographies, and as such it is no surprise that the authors aim to bring people, place, and social interactions to the forefront in their discussion of technology. Computers and the internet are treated as objects in a world still bound by geography and sociality. Computers are objects bought and sold; technology and its application are subject to rhetoric and false expectations; people integrate the virtual into their lives with surprisingly little fuss.
The chapters in this volume cover an impressive range of both subject matter and technology discourse. Reading about dancers, stockbrokers, and hospital porters side-by-side is not only fascinating, but also frames technology discourse in a broader context than the white-collar environment it is often implicitly limited to.
The contributions provide interesting, detailed insight into people's actual experiences with technology and debunk some of the more extreme utopian and dystopian rhetoric around computers and the internet. The authors remind us that technology may help or hinder people in navigating their lives, but it won't uproot their social and physical nature.
See the full review at the RCCS website.
Excerpts:
New Technologies at Work: People, Screens and Social Virtuality, edited by Christina Garsten and Helena Wulff, is a set of ethnographies, and as such it is no surprise that the authors aim to bring people, place, and social interactions to the forefront in their discussion of technology. Computers and the internet are treated as objects in a world still bound by geography and sociality. Computers are objects bought and sold; technology and its application are subject to rhetoric and false expectations; people integrate the virtual into their lives with surprisingly little fuss.
The chapters in this volume cover an impressive range of both subject matter and technology discourse. Reading about dancers, stockbrokers, and hospital porters side-by-side is not only fascinating, but also frames technology discourse in a broader context than the white-collar environment it is often implicitly limited to.
The contributions provide interesting, detailed insight into people's actual experiences with technology and debunk some of the more extreme utopian and dystopian rhetoric around computers and the internet. The authors remind us that technology may help or hinder people in navigating their lives, but it won't uproot their social and physical nature.
Monday
40 meters or 4'000 kilometers apart - how much does it matter?
Thomas J. Allen, Architecture and communication among product development engineers, Engineering Management Society, 2000. Proceedings of the 2000 IEEE
One of the articles on collaboration, distance and technology that is most often recommended to me is Thomas Allen's 'Architecture and communication among product engineers'. It is most famous for its finding that people separated by more than a certain distance (40m is usually cited), are far less likely to work together than people whose workspaces are closer to each other.
Probability of communication
Allen finds a dramatic decrease even within the first 50m of separation.
Plotting ... results produces a curve that to no one's surprise shows probability of communication declining with distance. ... Communication probability declines to asymptotic level within the first 50 meters of separation.
Organizational affiliation modifies the effect. The decrease in communication is still found, but
the existence of a departmental relationship adds to communication probability by a constant amount, which is independent of distance. Project relationships produce a similar, but usually stronger, effect. This is due to the interdependence of project activities and the strong need for technical communication [for coordination].
Allen goes on to identify a more comprehensive set of influences.
So the probability that a pair of scientists or engineers will engage in frequent technical communication is a function of the degree to which they share a common base of knowledge; the rate at which that knowledge base is developing' the size of their organizational unit; the degree of interdependence in their work and the distance between their workstations.
Effect of telecommunications
When we had engineers report telephone and electronic mail as well as face-to-face communications, we found that, following a 'near field' rise the use of all media decayed with distance. ... One reason for the pattern observed in our data is that all of these media, as well as the written medium, are correlated in their use. We communicate with nearly the same people through all of these media. ... The more often we see someone face-to-face, the more likely that we will telephone that person or communicate by another medium.
Allen also observes qualitative differences between various media of communications. He cites a study by Hauptman (Allen & Hauptman, 1989) that shows that the telephone was used for less complex communication. Face-to-face was used for more complex information.
Many things, particularly technical ideas and problems, are difficult to communicate verbally. We need the assistance of diagrams or sketches. In addition, we often need the feedback that often comes from looking into the other person's eyes. The eyes communicate understanding. ... Similarly, in describing an idea or technical problem to someone, you can tell whether they are following you. If the indication is negative, you are prompted to restate the information in a different way. This feedback is invaluable in guiding communication.
Needless to say, it is strongest in face-to-face communication and weaker when speaking on the phone. The use of letters or e-mail not only reduces the possibilities for this kind of feedback, but also delays it.
3 types of communication
Allen uses a typology of communication to organize his work:
Type I communication is used to coordinate work.
Type II is necessary when the knowledge base of work changes rapidly (keeping up to date).
Type III is used for creative work.
While the article only touches in parts on the differences in communication behavior by type of communication, this would certainly be an avenue to explore further.
One of the articles on collaboration, distance and technology that is most often recommended to me is Thomas Allen's 'Architecture and communication among product engineers'. It is most famous for its finding that people separated by more than a certain distance (40m is usually cited), are far less likely to work together than people whose workspaces are closer to each other.
Probability of communication
Allen finds a dramatic decrease even within the first 50m of separation.
Plotting ... results produces a curve that to no one's surprise shows probability of communication declining with distance. ... Communication probability declines to asymptotic level within the first 50 meters of separation.
Organizational affiliation modifies the effect. The decrease in communication is still found, but
the existence of a departmental relationship adds to communication probability by a constant amount, which is independent of distance. Project relationships produce a similar, but usually stronger, effect. This is due to the interdependence of project activities and the strong need for technical communication [for coordination].
Allen goes on to identify a more comprehensive set of influences.
So the probability that a pair of scientists or engineers will engage in frequent technical communication is a function of the degree to which they share a common base of knowledge; the rate at which that knowledge base is developing' the size of their organizational unit; the degree of interdependence in their work and the distance between their workstations.
Effect of telecommunications
When we had engineers report telephone and electronic mail as well as face-to-face communications, we found that, following a 'near field' rise the use of all media decayed with distance. ... One reason for the pattern observed in our data is that all of these media, as well as the written medium, are correlated in their use. We communicate with nearly the same people through all of these media. ... The more often we see someone face-to-face, the more likely that we will telephone that person or communicate by another medium.
Allen also observes qualitative differences between various media of communications. He cites a study by Hauptman (Allen & Hauptman, 1989) that shows that the telephone was used for less complex communication. Face-to-face was used for more complex information.
Many things, particularly technical ideas and problems, are difficult to communicate verbally. We need the assistance of diagrams or sketches. In addition, we often need the feedback that often comes from looking into the other person's eyes. The eyes communicate understanding. ... Similarly, in describing an idea or technical problem to someone, you can tell whether they are following you. If the indication is negative, you are prompted to restate the information in a different way. This feedback is invaluable in guiding communication.
Needless to say, it is strongest in face-to-face communication and weaker when speaking on the phone. The use of letters or e-mail not only reduces the possibilities for this kind of feedback, but also delays it.
3 types of communication
Allen uses a typology of communication to organize his work:
Type I communication is used to coordinate work.
Type II is necessary when the knowledge base of work changes rapidly (keeping up to date).
Type III is used for creative work.
While the article only touches in parts on the differences in communication behavior by type of communication, this would certainly be an avenue to explore further.
Thursday
Ethnography of international software development
Net-working for a living: Irish developers in the global workplace, Sean O’Riain. In “Global Ethnography” edited by Michael Burawoy et al., 2000
Given the popularity of software development as a research topic, it is surprising that ethnographic studies are rare in this field. Whereas software design is discovering ethnography as a tool for better understanding user requirements, the developers themselves are rarely studied.
Sean O’Riain’s work is a notable exception. In 2000 he published an ethnographic study of Irish software developers working for a US company. He observed the interplay between American headquarters and the development team in Ireland as well as additional intercultural effects that arose from the diverse national backgrounds of team members.
He discovers an ‘intensification of space’ that arises as a counterbalance to the difficulties of long-distance collaboration. Each location develops its own culture and identity – shared space allows people to create meaning and a shared identity.
Somewhat less directly, he also posits an ‘intensification of time.’ In the global workplace, direct control over other people’s work is not possible. Deadlines become the means of control over distance – thus the intensification of time.
More details
O’Riain’s conclusions strongly contradict the idea that communications technology and globalization create a workplace that is no longer embedded in geographical space. Instead, he sees the global economy as something that happens in limited key regions and the connections between them.
Reich, Giddens and others argue:
By contrast, O’Riain finds that,
This argument follows Piore and Sabel, Saxenian and Storper in its emphasis on the importance of shared space and face-to-face relationships. Each development lab creates its own culture and its own web of interaction. Crucially, this happens through differentiation from other groups – and ‘us versus them’ mentality. It is reinforced through a higher sense of accountability and loyalty between people who interact frequently and face-to-face.
O’Riain also observes that, where such transnational ‘virtual’ relationships work, they are constantly supplemented by travel to meet the team or teams in the other country.
Overall, he concludes that, while face-to-face interactions were critical to conveying complex information or to building and sustaining trust, computer-supported communication seemed ‘especially suited to maintaining intermediate-strength ties between people who cannot see each other frequently' and for passing on routine information.
A final important factor that O’Riain brings up is that long-distance communication is not just limited by space and technology, but also by time zones. Where coordination is time-sensitive, much time can be wasted, waiting for a relatively simple response from someone several time zones away.
Given the popularity of software development as a research topic, it is surprising that ethnographic studies are rare in this field. Whereas software design is discovering ethnography as a tool for better understanding user requirements, the developers themselves are rarely studied.
Sean O’Riain’s work is a notable exception. In 2000 he published an ethnographic study of Irish software developers working for a US company. He observed the interplay between American headquarters and the development team in Ireland as well as additional intercultural effects that arose from the diverse national backgrounds of team members.
He discovers an ‘intensification of space’ that arises as a counterbalance to the difficulties of long-distance collaboration. Each location develops its own culture and identity – shared space allows people to create meaning and a shared identity.
Somewhat less directly, he also posits an ‘intensification of time.’ In the global workplace, direct control over other people’s work is not possible. Deadlines become the means of control over distance – thus the intensification of time.
More details
O’Riain’s conclusions strongly contradict the idea that communications technology and globalization create a workplace that is no longer embedded in geographical space. Instead, he sees the global economy as something that happens in limited key regions and the connections between them.
Reich, Giddens and others argue:
The dominant image of these workplaces is that of places lifted out of time and space, places where communication and innovation are free from the drag of local cultures and practices and untainted by power relations. Robert Reich argues that new information and communication technologies make it possible and even necessary to reorganize firms into ‘global webs’ and employees into global telecommunters. … The global workplace is ‘lifted out’ of its temporal and spatial contexts and becomes a ‘pure’ space for communication based on shared rules of interaction and understanding.
By contrast, O’Riain finds that,
the demands of the global economy for increased flexibility and specialized learning actually make the local context and interactions of the global workplace even more critical. Efficient production and constant innovation require the construction of shared physical spaces where workers can interact and communicate on a face-to-face basis and where shared goals and meanings can be created and maintained.
This argument follows Piore and Sabel, Saxenian and Storper in its emphasis on the importance of shared space and face-to-face relationships. Each development lab creates its own culture and its own web of interaction. Crucially, this happens through differentiation from other groups – and ‘us versus them’ mentality. It is reinforced through a higher sense of accountability and loyalty between people who interact frequently and face-to-face.
While software developers may move quite regularly from job to job, they have an intense relationship with each other once in a particular job. … Members of such teams are usually located in close proximity to one another, as this allows the team to handle the complex interdependencies among them through easy and constant communication and allows them to build a coherent collective identity, which becomes the basis of cooperation within the team. … By contrast, information flows to the United States can be patchy and tend to be limited to broad strategic decisions. As one of O’Riain’s managers put it, ‘Having a remote manager has made getting a process of communication in place a lot more difficult.’ Problems which would require solution in a face-to-face context can be swept under the carpet or become a figure of fun in a context where communication is by phone and the Internet.
O’Riain also observes that, where such transnational ‘virtual’ relationships work, they are constantly supplemented by travel to meet the team or teams in the other country.
Overall, he concludes that, while face-to-face interactions were critical to conveying complex information or to building and sustaining trust, computer-supported communication seemed ‘especially suited to maintaining intermediate-strength ties between people who cannot see each other frequently' and for passing on routine information.
A final important factor that O’Riain brings up is that long-distance communication is not just limited by space and technology, but also by time zones. Where coordination is time-sensitive, much time can be wasted, waiting for a relatively simple response from someone several time zones away.
Tuesday
Virtual meetings
The Economist reports on a Wainhouse survey of remote conferencing.
Nobody was surprised at the growth in audio, video and web-based conferencing after the terrorist attacks of 2001. Such technologies allow “virtual meetings” ranging from a simple three-way conference call to a fancy multimedia presentation beamed to hundreds over the internet. A sluggish economy, last year's SARS scare and lengthy security lines at airports have also fuelled interest. But as the economy rebounds, will enthusiasts of virtual meetings simply go back to real ones?
Apparently not, according to a new survey. Enthusiasm for virtual meetings has continued to grow (see chart). Having been prompted to try virtual meetings, many people seem to like them, says Ira Weinstein of Wainhouse Research, which carried out the survey.
But while virtual meetings are often seen as a cheaper alternative to travel, they are better understood as a middle ground between a phone call and a face-to-face meeting, argues Mr Weinstein. They save money, but they also save time. In a survey of business travellers carried out by MCI, a big American telecoms firm, 69% said they preferred a virtual meeting to travelling because it saved time, while only 37% said they did it to save money. Each has its place, argues Mr Weinstein. “Video conferencing is a perfect second-meeting tool after the first handshake,” he says.
Growing fastest is “web conferencing”, which usually combines a phone-based audio conference with a visual display (such as a slide presentation or software demonstration) delivered via a web browser. It grew by 40% last year, and hybrid web-audio conferences are now starting to displace audio-only conference calls. There is no need for fancy equipment, since most people already have a phone and a PC on their desks.
The boom in web conferencing was happening anyway, says Praful Shah of WebEx, the dominant web-conferencing provider, with 67% of the market. The firm's revenues grew from $2.6m in 1999 to $189m in 2003. “We were already on a fast track,” he says, even before the technology started to get more exposure.
Nobody was surprised at the growth in audio, video and web-based conferencing after the terrorist attacks of 2001. Such technologies allow “virtual meetings” ranging from a simple three-way conference call to a fancy multimedia presentation beamed to hundreds over the internet. A sluggish economy, last year's SARS scare and lengthy security lines at airports have also fuelled interest. But as the economy rebounds, will enthusiasts of virtual meetings simply go back to real ones?
Apparently not, according to a new survey. Enthusiasm for virtual meetings has continued to grow (see chart). Having been prompted to try virtual meetings, many people seem to like them, says Ira Weinstein of Wainhouse Research, which carried out the survey.
But while virtual meetings are often seen as a cheaper alternative to travel, they are better understood as a middle ground between a phone call and a face-to-face meeting, argues Mr Weinstein. They save money, but they also save time. In a survey of business travellers carried out by MCI, a big American telecoms firm, 69% said they preferred a virtual meeting to travelling because it saved time, while only 37% said they did it to save money. Each has its place, argues Mr Weinstein. “Video conferencing is a perfect second-meeting tool after the first handshake,” he says.
Growing fastest is “web conferencing”, which usually combines a phone-based audio conference with a visual display (such as a slide presentation or software demonstration) delivered via a web browser. It grew by 40% last year, and hybrid web-audio conferences are now starting to displace audio-only conference calls. There is no need for fancy equipment, since most people already have a phone and a PC on their desks.
The boom in web conferencing was happening anyway, says Praful Shah of WebEx, the dominant web-conferencing provider, with 67% of the market. The firm's revenues grew from $2.6m in 1999 to $189m in 2003. “We were already on a fast track,” he says, even before the technology started to get more exposure.
Wednesday
ICTs versus face-to-face interaction for problem solving
Sources of ideas for innovation in engineering design, Ammon Salter, David Gann, 2003
This paper, published in Research Policy, vol. 32, no. 8, discusses where engineers find new ideas to solve design problems.
Not surprisingly, the paper suggests that personal, face-to-face interactions remain essential for designers working in project/based environments. The findings reveal that although designers are keen users of information and communication technologies (ICT), the rely heavily on close, personal interaction to solve problems, to develop ideas and to assess the quality of their work.
The authors provide an overview of generally recognized sources of ideas for innovation: primarily internal sources, but also customers, suppliers and competitors. Industrial fairs and exhibitions play an important role as well as (in some industries) professional conferences.
The engineering design process itself is principally concerned with how things ought to be. It involves thinking ahead creatively in order to make a technical object fitting the requirements of users or clients. This process of creation often involves developing new combinations of existing technologies. Hacker argues that the engineering design problem-solving process evolves through a series of iterative and overlapping phases: from problem identification, through development of different conceptual solutions, to designing a favoured solution and working out details of the physical artefact.
The role of ICT tools in this process is not clear. Some argue that new packages of ICT tools have the potential to fundamentally alter the design process (see Steinmueller, 2004). Some suggest that these new tools are leading to the codification of the knowledge-set underlying design activities (David and Foray, 1995). The new ICT tools allow for virtual exchanges across space and time between engineering design teams. New visualisation software and simulation packages can also be seen to lessen the need for face-to-face contact and tacit experience.
By contrast, Nightingale suggests that there is little or no evidence that the importance of tacit knowledge for design is declining. In fact, new ICT tools may increase the need for personal, tacit skills and face-to-face communication.
In their survey, Salter and Gann found that designers rely on close, personal relationships for developing ideas in their work. The two highest rated sources of ideas for engineering design were related to face-to-face contact (84%) and working with others on projects (81%). Previous experience was cited by over 70% of the sample.
This was supported by results from personal interviews. In interviews, designers indicated the importance of close contact with others within their team and more widely within the firm. There was considerable interchange between young inexperienced designers and more experienced staff.
Clients and end-users were considered relatively less important sources of ideas. One the one hand, they were considered too far removed from the highly technical problems that the engineers faced. On the other hand, project managers acted as gatekeeper between engineers and clients.
Despite the fact that Arup is among the highest spenders on ICT tools in the UK design engineering sector, only 25% of its designers found on-line databases and working with new equipment and software to be an important source of ideas for design. ... Our survey shows that few designers used electronic scouting or CAD programmes for solving problems. ... Interviewees suggest that these media lack the immediacy or usefulness of other forms of communication.
The survey showed that few Arup designers thought access to information was a barrier to their design activities. ... As Court et al. have suggested, few designers lack information, instead what they lack is time.
In their conclusion, the authors discuss the importance of ICT tools vs/ face-to-face communications. The research shows that although designers may be keen users of new ICT tools, they still rely on personal exchanges and visual communication for the difficult parts of their work. This finding is supported by historical and ethnographic studies of engineering design that have shown that face-to-face communication among designers is necessary when there is a high level of uncertainty in the engineering design process. ... The immediacy of sketching and face-to-face exchanges is a key part of how engineering designers solve problems. New ICT tools have not yet altered the interactive nature of the design process.
Court et al. found that even when designers work on-line, a number of face-to-face meetings are necessary to build up trust to enable successful collaboration. ... Our study confirms the Court et al. (1997) view that designers suffer from information overload. New ICT tools have tended to increase the amount of documentation in the design process. Personal contact is essential to sift through this mountain of information.
The authors find that 'mixed use' is the best way to describe the application of ICT tools in the design process.
Unfortunately, they don't analyze the difference between face-to-face interaction and personal communication using ICTs (e.g. e-mail). It would be interesting to know how much of the personal interaction needs to happen face-to-face, and how much can be mediated by ICTs.
Some comments on the authors' methodology. Many studies in this field are carried out using large scale surveys where 1 representative (often a high-level R&D manager) responds on behalf of an entire firm. Salter and Gann used a different approach to better understand nuances in engineers' approaches to innovation. Through a series of interviews, they built a cast study of the firm in question. Based on this, they then carried out a survey of the firm's design engineers. This allowed them to better understand what was happening in day-to-day work than the traditional approach would.
They offer a complementary approach to large-scale innovation surveys by focusing on a detailed study of the ideas for innovation in engineering design in a single company. ... There have been few studies of sources of ideas for innovation in engineering design. This paper attempts to fill this gap in the literature by combining interview and survey data.
This paper, published in Research Policy, vol. 32, no. 8, discusses where engineers find new ideas to solve design problems.
Not surprisingly, the paper suggests that personal, face-to-face interactions remain essential for designers working in project/based environments. The findings reveal that although designers are keen users of information and communication technologies (ICT), the rely heavily on close, personal interaction to solve problems, to develop ideas and to assess the quality of their work.
The authors provide an overview of generally recognized sources of ideas for innovation: primarily internal sources, but also customers, suppliers and competitors. Industrial fairs and exhibitions play an important role as well as (in some industries) professional conferences.
The engineering design process itself is principally concerned with how things ought to be. It involves thinking ahead creatively in order to make a technical object fitting the requirements of users or clients. This process of creation often involves developing new combinations of existing technologies. Hacker argues that the engineering design problem-solving process evolves through a series of iterative and overlapping phases: from problem identification, through development of different conceptual solutions, to designing a favoured solution and working out details of the physical artefact.
The role of ICT tools in this process is not clear. Some argue that new packages of ICT tools have the potential to fundamentally alter the design process (see Steinmueller, 2004). Some suggest that these new tools are leading to the codification of the knowledge-set underlying design activities (David and Foray, 1995). The new ICT tools allow for virtual exchanges across space and time between engineering design teams. New visualisation software and simulation packages can also be seen to lessen the need for face-to-face contact and tacit experience.
By contrast, Nightingale suggests that there is little or no evidence that the importance of tacit knowledge for design is declining. In fact, new ICT tools may increase the need for personal, tacit skills and face-to-face communication.
In their survey, Salter and Gann found that designers rely on close, personal relationships for developing ideas in their work. The two highest rated sources of ideas for engineering design were related to face-to-face contact (84%) and working with others on projects (81%). Previous experience was cited by over 70% of the sample.
This was supported by results from personal interviews. In interviews, designers indicated the importance of close contact with others within their team and more widely within the firm. There was considerable interchange between young inexperienced designers and more experienced staff.
Clients and end-users were considered relatively less important sources of ideas. One the one hand, they were considered too far removed from the highly technical problems that the engineers faced. On the other hand, project managers acted as gatekeeper between engineers and clients.
Despite the fact that Arup is among the highest spenders on ICT tools in the UK design engineering sector, only 25% of its designers found on-line databases and working with new equipment and software to be an important source of ideas for design. ... Our survey shows that few designers used electronic scouting or CAD programmes for solving problems. ... Interviewees suggest that these media lack the immediacy or usefulness of other forms of communication.
The survey showed that few Arup designers thought access to information was a barrier to their design activities. ... As Court et al. have suggested, few designers lack information, instead what they lack is time.
In their conclusion, the authors discuss the importance of ICT tools vs/ face-to-face communications. The research shows that although designers may be keen users of new ICT tools, they still rely on personal exchanges and visual communication for the difficult parts of their work. This finding is supported by historical and ethnographic studies of engineering design that have shown that face-to-face communication among designers is necessary when there is a high level of uncertainty in the engineering design process. ... The immediacy of sketching and face-to-face exchanges is a key part of how engineering designers solve problems. New ICT tools have not yet altered the interactive nature of the design process.
Court et al. found that even when designers work on-line, a number of face-to-face meetings are necessary to build up trust to enable successful collaboration. ... Our study confirms the Court et al. (1997) view that designers suffer from information overload. New ICT tools have tended to increase the amount of documentation in the design process. Personal contact is essential to sift through this mountain of information.
The authors find that 'mixed use' is the best way to describe the application of ICT tools in the design process.
Unfortunately, they don't analyze the difference between face-to-face interaction and personal communication using ICTs (e.g. e-mail). It would be interesting to know how much of the personal interaction needs to happen face-to-face, and how much can be mediated by ICTs.
Some comments on the authors' methodology. Many studies in this field are carried out using large scale surveys where 1 representative (often a high-level R&D manager) responds on behalf of an entire firm. Salter and Gann used a different approach to better understand nuances in engineers' approaches to innovation. Through a series of interviews, they built a cast study of the firm in question. Based on this, they then carried out a survey of the firm's design engineers. This allowed them to better understand what was happening in day-to-day work than the traditional approach would.
They offer a complementary approach to large-scale innovation surveys by focusing on a detailed study of the ideas for innovation in engineering design in a single company. ... There have been few studies of sources of ideas for innovation in engineering design. This paper attempts to fill this gap in the literature by combining interview and survey data.
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